Comparative historian Marc Ferro claims that
the largest discrepancy in knowledge between
what academic historians and what the aver-
age citizen knows about history is found in the
United States. How has this situation come
about? Certainly the problem does not lie with
the secondary literature. Whereas in the past.
American historians were handicapped by sec-
ondary literature that was clearly biased towards
a European viewpoint, since the civil rights
movement of the 1950s and 60s. the secondary
literature in American history has become far
more comprehensive. And it cannot be simply
a matter of space constraints; the average high
school history textbook is well over a thousand
pages in length.
One theory holds that American history text-
books are simply the socializing instruments of
a controlling elite. The stratification of American
society is preserved. according to this theory.
by the creation of what Marx termed “false
consciousness." The theory holds that the way
people think about their society and their history
is crucial to maintaining the status quo. If the
power elites come to believe that their success
is the deserved product of their hard work and
ingenuity, then there will be no desire to change
the system. Similarly, if the lower classes are
taught that their plight is solely due to their fail-
ings, they will be more likely to accept their fate
and less likely to rise up in revolution. Griffin
and Marciano contend that history textbooks
promote nothing more than hegemony.
Many educational theorists share this view-
point. which in their discipline is often known
as critical theory. Proponents of this view, in-
cluding Kozol, Freire, and Giroux, argue that the
dominant classes would never create or foster
an educational system that taught subordinate
classes how to critically evaluate society and the
injustices it contains. As long as schools serve
to transmit culture, the power elite will never
allow any real reform in the system.
It is all too easy to blame citizens’ poor un-
derstanding of American history on some shad-
owy coterie of cultural aristocracy. But critical
theory and other theories that lay the blame for
American ignorance of history on the doorstep
of the elites cannot explain their own success.
Is it not a paradox that critical theory scholarship
dominates its field? If the titans of society had
as much power as the critical theorists contend.
they would surely censor or marginalize the
works of social scientists in this field. Further-
more, graduates of “elite" preparatory schools
are exposed to alternative interpretations of
history. subversive teachers, and unfiltered
primary source materials more frequently than
are students at public institutions. This would
seem to indicate that the power-brokers have
little control over what happens at their very
own schools, let alone far flung rural schools or
schools deep in urban territory. The real culprit
may be something not as insidious as a vast up-
per class conspiracy, but more along the lines of
pernicious forces working at a highly local level.
Almost half of the states have textbook adoption
boards consisting of members of the commu-
nity. These boards review and recommend what
books are taught in neighborhood schools. And
because textbook publishers are first and fore-
most seeking to maximize profit, it is these local
boards that they must appease.
Question 8
Consider each of the following answer choices separately and select all that apply.
According to the passage, proponents of the critical theory believe which of the following?
The creation of a false consciousness is a significant element in maintaining the stratification of American society.
It is not in the interests of the powerful classes of society to engender critical reflection among the majority of citizens.
Alternative interpretations of history may be taught to members of the upper classes, but not to members of the subordinate classes.
Question 9
It can be inferred from the passage that
Marx was an early proponent of critical theory
textbooks are not solely designed as teaching instruments
the secondary literature on American history is no longer biased
textbook publishers do not take the views of the power elite into account
under the current system, real education reform is impossible
Question 10
Consider each of the following answer choices separately and select all that apply.
Which of the following statements about critical theory can be supported by the passage?
It is simply another means by which the power elite preserves the stratification of American society.
It does not contain any of the same biases which had appeared in the secondary literature prior to the civil rights movement.
It is not unique in its attempts to attribute Americans’ poor knowledge of history to the machinations of a particular class of
individuals.
Question 11
Select the sentence in the first paragraph that explains why a problem is less severe for current American historians now than it was a
century ago.
Question 12
Not only did the exhibit clearly show the health benefits of a vegetarian diet, it showed how those benefits often translate into a
greater sense of _________.
vitality
mendacity
remorse
vigor
contrition
persecution
Question 13
While the author clearly identifies the importance of Victorian culture to twentieth-century technological advances, he _________ the importance of British Regency to the development of the social factors that influenced Victorian culture.
intimates
corroborates
neglects
placates
trumpets
omits
Question 14
The speaker, though well-read and articulate, had a tendency to be _________.
eloquent
elegant
bombastic
gregarious
pompous
affable
Question 15
Given that conditions were quite amenable to fruit trees during the growing season this year, the _________ of apples this fall is surprising.
dearth
countenance
surfeit
spate
amalgamation
paucity
8. A and B
Be sure to use both the second and third paragraphs to answer this question: Although the term critical theory doesn’t appear until the
latter, it’s used to describe the viewpoint discussed in the previous paragraph. Choice (A) is supported by the sentence in the second
paragraph that states that American society is preserved … by the creation of what Marx called “false consciousness.” Choice (B) is
also supported by the sentence in the third paragraph that states that dominant classes … and the injustices it contains. Choice (C),
however, is contradicted by information in the final paragraph and is stated in extreme language that is rarely correct on the GRE.
9. B Choice (B) is supported by the final lines of the passage, which indicate that textbook publishers are first and foremost seeking to
maximize profit. Thus, textbooks are not just teaching instruments, but money makers. Choice (A) is not supported by the passage.
The theorists use Marx’s term, but that doesn’t mean he was a member of the school. Choice (C) is wrong; the passage simply says the
literature is more comprehensive. That’s not the same as saying it is no longer biased. Choice (D) is not supported by the passage.
Although the author rejects the idea that the power elites are in control of textbooks, it may still be true that publishers take their
views into account. Choice (E) is put forth by the critical theorists, but it is not necessarily true.
10. C Choice (C) is supported by the reference in the third paragraph to critical theory and other theories … on the doorstep of the elites; if
there are other theories that similarly lay blame, then critical theory is not unique. Choice (A) is not supported: Critical theory is used
by educational theorists, not the power elite. Choice (B) is also not supported: Critical theory is discussed as an attempt to explain
Americans’ alleged ignorance of history, which can no longer be attributed to the less comprehensive secondary sources that were
common before the civil rights movement.
11. Whereas in the past, American historians…
After introducing the main idea, most of the first paragraph is spent dismissing possible causes for the discrepancy that Ferro claims.
The third sentence absolves the secondary literature as a suspect; if you selected this sentence, you may have failed to clarify that the
problem asked for the sentence that explains why. The fourth sentence gives the desired reason: The secondary literature became
more comprehensive after the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 60s. If you chose the fifth sentence, note that the passage
doesn’t state whether space constraints were ever a problem.
12. A and D
Not only tells you that the second part of the sentence will continue in the same direction as, and expand upon, the first part of the
sentence. The first part says an exhibit showed a vegetarian diet is healthy, so the second part will also say the exhibit showed
something positive about a vegetarian diet, and it will likely be relevant to health. Remorse and contrition are synonymous but are
too negative for what you’re looking for. Mendacity, which means deception, and persecution, which means an attack on an ethnic
group, are also too negative to be extensions of health benefits. On the other hand, vitality and vigor both mean having lots of energy,
which is a congruous and logical extension of the health benefits of a diet.
13. C and F
While is a trigger word, so you know that the second clause will contrast with the first. The first clause states that the author does
identify Victorian culture, so the second clause will be about a failure to identify something. Thus, choices (A) and (E) can be
eliminated, since they suggest successfully communicating something. To corroborate, choice (B), means to validate a story. To placate
means to appease, so choice (D) doesn’t make sense here. To neglect and to omit both suggest a failure; choices (C) and (F) are
correct.
14. C and E
The trigger though tells you that the latter part of the sentence will contrast with well-read and articulate, so you’re looking for words
that indicate negative attributes of a speaker. Eloquent and elegant both have positive meanings, so eliminate choices (A) and (B).
Gregarious and affable both mean highly social, and so are too positive as well as irrelevant to the sentence; eliminate choices (D) and
(F). Bombastic and pompous both mean prone to ostentatious speech, so answer choices (C) and (E) give you appropriate, equivalent
sentences.
15. A and F
The trigger word comes at the very end of this sentence: Since the speaker indicates surprise, the second half of the sentence will
contrast with the first, which says that conditions for apples were good. So you’re looking for words that indicate the apples are poor
in some way, and both dearth and paucity indicate a lack or shortage. Surfeit and spate are also synonyms, but they have the opposite
meaning: an abundance or excess. Neither countenance, which means the look on one’s face, nor amalgamation, which means
combination, fit here. Choices (A) and (F) are the best answers.
the largest discrepancy in knowledge between
what academic historians and what the aver-
age citizen knows about history is found in the
United States. How has this situation come
about? Certainly the problem does not lie with
the secondary literature. Whereas in the past.
American historians were handicapped by sec-
ondary literature that was clearly biased towards
a European viewpoint, since the civil rights
movement of the 1950s and 60s. the secondary
literature in American history has become far
more comprehensive. And it cannot be simply
a matter of space constraints; the average high
school history textbook is well over a thousand
pages in length.
One theory holds that American history text-
books are simply the socializing instruments of
a controlling elite. The stratification of American
society is preserved. according to this theory.
by the creation of what Marx termed “false
consciousness." The theory holds that the way
people think about their society and their history
is crucial to maintaining the status quo. If the
power elites come to believe that their success
is the deserved product of their hard work and
ingenuity, then there will be no desire to change
the system. Similarly, if the lower classes are
taught that their plight is solely due to their fail-
ings, they will be more likely to accept their fate
and less likely to rise up in revolution. Griffin
and Marciano contend that history textbooks
promote nothing more than hegemony.
Many educational theorists share this view-
point. which in their discipline is often known
as critical theory. Proponents of this view, in-
cluding Kozol, Freire, and Giroux, argue that the
dominant classes would never create or foster
an educational system that taught subordinate
classes how to critically evaluate society and the
injustices it contains. As long as schools serve
to transmit culture, the power elite will never
allow any real reform in the system.
It is all too easy to blame citizens’ poor un-
derstanding of American history on some shad-
owy coterie of cultural aristocracy. But critical
theory and other theories that lay the blame for
American ignorance of history on the doorstep
of the elites cannot explain their own success.
Is it not a paradox that critical theory scholarship
dominates its field? If the titans of society had
as much power as the critical theorists contend.
they would surely censor or marginalize the
works of social scientists in this field. Further-
more, graduates of “elite" preparatory schools
are exposed to alternative interpretations of
history. subversive teachers, and unfiltered
primary source materials more frequently than
are students at public institutions. This would
seem to indicate that the power-brokers have
little control over what happens at their very
own schools, let alone far flung rural schools or
schools deep in urban territory. The real culprit
may be something not as insidious as a vast up-
per class conspiracy, but more along the lines of
pernicious forces working at a highly local level.
Almost half of the states have textbook adoption
boards consisting of members of the commu-
nity. These boards review and recommend what
books are taught in neighborhood schools. And
because textbook publishers are first and fore-
most seeking to maximize profit, it is these local
boards that they must appease.
Question 8
Consider each of the following answer choices separately and select all that apply.
According to the passage, proponents of the critical theory believe which of the following?
The creation of a false consciousness is a significant element in maintaining the stratification of American society.
It is not in the interests of the powerful classes of society to engender critical reflection among the majority of citizens.
Alternative interpretations of history may be taught to members of the upper classes, but not to members of the subordinate classes.
Question 9
It can be inferred from the passage that
Marx was an early proponent of critical theory
textbooks are not solely designed as teaching instruments
the secondary literature on American history is no longer biased
textbook publishers do not take the views of the power elite into account
under the current system, real education reform is impossible
Question 10
Consider each of the following answer choices separately and select all that apply.
Which of the following statements about critical theory can be supported by the passage?
It is simply another means by which the power elite preserves the stratification of American society.
It does not contain any of the same biases which had appeared in the secondary literature prior to the civil rights movement.
It is not unique in its attempts to attribute Americans’ poor knowledge of history to the machinations of a particular class of
individuals.
Question 11
Select the sentence in the first paragraph that explains why a problem is less severe for current American historians now than it was a
century ago.
Question 12
Not only did the exhibit clearly show the health benefits of a vegetarian diet, it showed how those benefits often translate into a
greater sense of _________.
vitality
mendacity
remorse
vigor
contrition
persecution
Question 13
While the author clearly identifies the importance of Victorian culture to twentieth-century technological advances, he _________ the importance of British Regency to the development of the social factors that influenced Victorian culture.
intimates
corroborates
neglects
placates
trumpets
omits
Question 14
The speaker, though well-read and articulate, had a tendency to be _________.
eloquent
elegant
bombastic
gregarious
pompous
affable
Question 15
Given that conditions were quite amenable to fruit trees during the growing season this year, the _________ of apples this fall is surprising.
dearth
countenance
surfeit
spate
amalgamation
paucity
8. A and B
Be sure to use both the second and third paragraphs to answer this question: Although the term critical theory doesn’t appear until the
latter, it’s used to describe the viewpoint discussed in the previous paragraph. Choice (A) is supported by the sentence in the second
paragraph that states that American society is preserved … by the creation of what Marx called “false consciousness.” Choice (B) is
also supported by the sentence in the third paragraph that states that dominant classes … and the injustices it contains. Choice (C),
however, is contradicted by information in the final paragraph and is stated in extreme language that is rarely correct on the GRE.
9. B Choice (B) is supported by the final lines of the passage, which indicate that textbook publishers are first and foremost seeking to
maximize profit. Thus, textbooks are not just teaching instruments, but money makers. Choice (A) is not supported by the passage.
The theorists use Marx’s term, but that doesn’t mean he was a member of the school. Choice (C) is wrong; the passage simply says the
literature is more comprehensive. That’s not the same as saying it is no longer biased. Choice (D) is not supported by the passage.
Although the author rejects the idea that the power elites are in control of textbooks, it may still be true that publishers take their
views into account. Choice (E) is put forth by the critical theorists, but it is not necessarily true.
10. C Choice (C) is supported by the reference in the third paragraph to critical theory and other theories … on the doorstep of the elites; if
there are other theories that similarly lay blame, then critical theory is not unique. Choice (A) is not supported: Critical theory is used
by educational theorists, not the power elite. Choice (B) is also not supported: Critical theory is discussed as an attempt to explain
Americans’ alleged ignorance of history, which can no longer be attributed to the less comprehensive secondary sources that were
common before the civil rights movement.
11. Whereas in the past, American historians…
After introducing the main idea, most of the first paragraph is spent dismissing possible causes for the discrepancy that Ferro claims.
The third sentence absolves the secondary literature as a suspect; if you selected this sentence, you may have failed to clarify that the
problem asked for the sentence that explains why. The fourth sentence gives the desired reason: The secondary literature became
more comprehensive after the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 60s. If you chose the fifth sentence, note that the passage
doesn’t state whether space constraints were ever a problem.
12. A and D
Not only tells you that the second part of the sentence will continue in the same direction as, and expand upon, the first part of the
sentence. The first part says an exhibit showed a vegetarian diet is healthy, so the second part will also say the exhibit showed
something positive about a vegetarian diet, and it will likely be relevant to health. Remorse and contrition are synonymous but are
too negative for what you’re looking for. Mendacity, which means deception, and persecution, which means an attack on an ethnic
group, are also too negative to be extensions of health benefits. On the other hand, vitality and vigor both mean having lots of energy,
which is a congruous and logical extension of the health benefits of a diet.
13. C and F
While is a trigger word, so you know that the second clause will contrast with the first. The first clause states that the author does
identify Victorian culture, so the second clause will be about a failure to identify something. Thus, choices (A) and (E) can be
eliminated, since they suggest successfully communicating something. To corroborate, choice (B), means to validate a story. To placate
means to appease, so choice (D) doesn’t make sense here. To neglect and to omit both suggest a failure; choices (C) and (F) are
correct.
14. C and E
The trigger though tells you that the latter part of the sentence will contrast with well-read and articulate, so you’re looking for words
that indicate negative attributes of a speaker. Eloquent and elegant both have positive meanings, so eliminate choices (A) and (B).
Gregarious and affable both mean highly social, and so are too positive as well as irrelevant to the sentence; eliminate choices (D) and
(F). Bombastic and pompous both mean prone to ostentatious speech, so answer choices (C) and (E) give you appropriate, equivalent
sentences.
15. A and F
The trigger word comes at the very end of this sentence: Since the speaker indicates surprise, the second half of the sentence will
contrast with the first, which says that conditions for apples were good. So you’re looking for words that indicate the apples are poor
in some way, and both dearth and paucity indicate a lack or shortage. Surfeit and spate are also synonyms, but they have the opposite
meaning: an abundance or excess. Neither countenance, which means the look on one’s face, nor amalgamation, which means
combination, fit here. Choices (A) and (F) are the best answers.
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